The Republics of 1918: How the South Caucasus redefined its future

One hundred and eight years ago, amid collapsing empires and revolutionary chaos, the peoples of the South Caucasus took historic steps towards independence.

Between 26 and 28 May 1918, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia each declared sovereignty, establishing the region’s first modern republics and laying the foundations for the independent states that exist today.

The final decades of the Tsarist Empire transformed the South Caucasus into a complex mosaic of Armenians, Georgians and Azerbaijanis, each preserving distinct identities while living under centralised Russian rule. The Russian Revolution of 1917 shattered that imperial order, unleashing political instability, territorial disputes and a fierce struggle for self-determination.

As the Bolsheviks consolidated power in Russia and the Ottoman Empire advanced from the west, the South Caucasus became a geopolitical crossroads caught between collapsing empires, foreign intervention and rising national movements.

The failed dream of a united Caucasus

Following the collapse of the Russian Empire, regional leaders attempted to preserve unity through the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic, declared in April 1918. However, deep disagreements between Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan over national interests, foreign alliances and relations with the Ottomans and Bolsheviks quickly undermined the federation.

Georgia became the first to withdraw. Influential Georgian political and intellectual circles rejected Soviet authority established after the Bolshevik Revolution and moved decisively towards statehood.

In November 1917, a national convention in Tbilisi elected the National Council of Georgia, paving the way for the proclamation of the Democratic Republic of Georgia on 26 May 1918. Under the leadership of Noe Ramishvili and the Menshevik government, Georgia established democratic institutions and held multiparty parliamentary elections in 1919.

The Georgian constitution, adopted on 21 February 1921, guaranteed protections for minorities, recognised women’s rights and abolished the death penalty. Yet the republic’s democratic experiment was cut short almost immediately. Just four days after the constitution’s adoption, the Red Army invaded, and by 25 February Georgia had been annexed by Soviet forces.

Azerbaijan’s democratic breakthrough

Two days after Georgia’s declaration, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was proclaimed on 28 May 1918 in Tbilisi, as Baku remained under Soviet control at the time.

The newly established republic emerged as the first secular parliamentary republic in the Muslim East. Although Azerbaijanis had lived under various empires throughout history, they never abandoned the ideal of national independence. The cultural and political awakening of the late 19th and early 20th centuries fostered a growing national consciousness that ultimately culminated in the creation of the republic.

The collapse of Tsarist Russia and the struggle for control of Baku’s oil created an increasingly complex geopolitical environment. Azerbaijani intellectuals and political leaders united around the fate of the nation and took decisive steps towards independent statehood.

The adoption of the Declaration of Independence on 28 May 1918 formally announced Azerbaijan’s sovereignty to the world. Led by the Azerbaijani National Council under Mammad Amin Rasulzade and supported by the Musavat Party, the young republic initially governed from Ganja while Baku remained under the control of the Baku Soviet and later the Central-Caspian Dictatorship.

On 15 September 1918, Ottoman-Azerbaijani forces entered Baku following the decisive Battle of Baku, restoring the city as the republic’s capital.

Within a remarkably short period, Azerbaijan established its parliament and government, defined state borders and adopted national symbols, including the flag, anthem and coat of arms. The Azerbaijani language was declared the official state language, marking a major milestone in nation-building.

The republic also introduced democratic reforms unprecedented in much of the region. Equal rights were granted to all citizens regardless of race, religion, nationality or class. Women received full voting rights ahead of many Western nations. Important measures were also taken to strengthen the military, protect territorial integrity and expand education and culture.

In 1919, Baku State University opened its doors, symbolising the republic’s commitment to modernisation and intellectual development.

However, the republic’s existence proved tragically brief. On 28 April 1920, the Red Army entered Baku, and Azerbaijan was incorporated into the Soviet Union after only 23 months of independence.

Armenia’s struggle for survival

Armenia also declared independence on 28 May 1918 under the leadership of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation, commonly known as the Dashnaks.

The First Republic of Armenia emerged amid war, famine and mass displacement. The Batum Treaty, signed in June 1918, forced Armenia to cede large territories to the Ottoman Empire, severely weakening the fledgling state.

Aram Manukian, widely regarded as the founding father of modern Armenia, played a critical role in organising resistance against Ottoman advances and stabilising the republic during its most difficult period.

Despite these efforts, Armenia remained vulnerable due to internal instability and external pressures. By December 1920, Bolshevik forces had taken control, transforming the republic into the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic.

A lasting legacy beyond their short existence

Although the first South Caucasus republics survived for less than two years, their influence proved enduring.

Each republic introduced national institutions, currencies, constitutions and education systems while promoting native languages and cultural development. Yerevan State University was founded in 1919, while literature, theatre and music flourished across the region.

At the Paris Peace Conference, leaders from the South Caucasus sought international recognition and support for their independence. Although U.S. President Woodrow Wilson acknowledged their aspirations, the great powers prioritised post-war stability over redrawing borders in the Caucasus.

“We do not want to divide the world into small pieces,” Wilson reportedly told the Azerbaijani delegation.

Despite the failure of regional unity and the eventual Sovietisation of the South Caucasus, the republics of 1918 shaped modern national identities and political traditions. Their flags, institutions and ideals would re-emerge decades later when Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia regained independence following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.

Azerbaijan’s restored independence and modern statehood

For Azerbaijan, independence was restored nearly 70 years later in 1991. Yet the country’s leadership describes the consolidation of true statehood as beginning in 1993, when National Leader Heydar Aliyev returned to power during a period of severe political and social instability.

Azerbaijan declared itself the political and spiritual successor to the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic. Under Heydar Aliyev’s leadership, the country stabilised its institutions and strengthened state independence.

Today, Azerbaijan presents itself as a powerful regional actor pursuing an independent domestic and foreign policy. Under President Ilham Aliyev, the country has experienced significant political, economic and infrastructural transformation.

The 2020 Second Garabagh War became a defining moment in modern Azerbaijani history, with Azerbaijan restoring control over territories it had long considered occupied. The raising of the Azerbaijani flag in Khankendi, Khojaly, Aghdara, Khojavand and Asgaran was presented as the fulfilment of long-standing national aspirations.

The government’s “Great Return” programme, aimed at resettling formerly displaced populations in territories regained after the war, is now one of the country’s flagship national projects.

The enduring meaning of 28 May

Today, 28 May, celebrated as Independence Day in Azerbaijan, remains a powerful symbol of national pride, sacrifice and sovereignty.

For the peoples of the South Caucasus, the republics established in 1918 represented more than brief political experiments. They embodied the first modern expressions of self-rule, democratic governance and national identity in a region shaped by imperial domination.

Though their independence was short-lived, the ideas born in 1918 endured through decades of Soviet rule and eventually re-emerged with renewed force after 1991.

More than a century later, the legacy of those first republics continues to shape the politics, identity and aspirations of the South Caucasus.

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