India-Pakistan military strikes: A history of conflict and recent escalation

India and Pakistan have engaged in a new round of military confrontation, with India launching missile strikes into Pakistani territory on May 6, 2025.

This operation, codenamed "Operation Sindoor," targeted what India described as "terrorist infrastructure" across nine sites in Pakistan and Pakistan-administered Kashmir. This latest escalation follows a deadly attack on tourists in Indian-administered Kashmir last month and represents the most significant military action between the nuclear-armed neighbors in recent years. The strikes have resulted in civilian casualties, including the death of a child, according to Pakistani officials, while India claims to have targeted terrorist facilities with precision.

The Recent Escalation: Operation Sindoor
On May 6, 2025, India conducted missile strikes on Pakistan in an operation called "Operation Sindoor". The Indian Armed Forces targeted nine sites in Pakistani-administered Kashmir (specifically in Muzaffarabad and Kotli) and Pakistan's Punjab province (in Bahawalpur and Muridke). According to the Indian Ministry of Defence, the strikes were "focused, measured, and non-escalatory," targeting terrorist infrastructure linked to groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammad.

The Indian government emphasized that no Pakistani military facilities were targeted, describing their actions as "precise, considered, and aimed at avoiding escalation". However, Pakistani security officials reported that the strikes killed a child and wounded two other people. Pakistan's Prime Minister Shehbaz Sharif called the strikes an "act of war" and asserted that Pakistan has the right to retaliate.

Background to the Current Crisis
The immediate catalyst for Operation Sindoor was an attack on April 22, 2025, where gunmen killed 26 people, mostly Indian tourists, in Pahalgam in Indian-administered Kashmir. The attack was claimed by the Resistance Front, described as an offshoot of Lashkar-e-Taiba. India accused Pakistan of supporting the attackers, though without providing specific evidence.

This incident led to a rapid deterioration in relations, with India taking diplomatic measures including expelling diplomats and threatening to suspend the Indus Waters Treaty. Both nations engaged in military posturing, with Pakistan testing ballistic missiles on May 3, 2025, shortly before India's missile strikes.

Historical Context: A Legacy of Conflict

First Kashmir War (1947-1948)
The history of military confrontation between India and Pakistan began shortly after their independence from British rule. The First Kashmir War (1947-1948) erupted when Pakistan sent tribal militias into Jammu and Kashmir following the princely state's accession to India. The conflict lasted approximately one year and ended with a UN-mediated ceasefire on January 1, 1949. This established the ceasefire line (later known as the Line of Control) that divides Kashmir between Indian and Pakistani administration to this day.

Second Indo-Pak War (1965)
The 1965 war began with Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar, an attempt to infiltrate forces into Kashmir to incite rebellion against Indian rule. When this failed, Pakistan launched Operation Grand Slam on September 1, 1965, aiming to capture the strategic town of Akhnoor in Jammu to cut off Indian supply routes. India responded by calling in its air force and opening a new front in Pakistani Punjab.

During this conflict, Pakistan's Navy also conducted Operation Dwarka, a bombardment of the Indian coastal town on the night of September 7-8, 1965. The war ended after 17 days with the Tashkent Agreement, resulting in no significant territorial changes.

Third Indo-Pak War (1971)
The 1971 war was distinct as it did not directly involve Kashmir. Instead, it was precipitated by the political crisis in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). Following Pakistani air strikes on Indian bases on December 3, 1971 (Operation Chengiz Khan), India responded with military operations supporting Bangladesh's independence movement.

The Indian Navy played a critical role with operations like "Operation Trident," where the "Killer Squadron" successfully targeted the Karachi port on December 4, 1971. The 13-day war ended with Pakistan's surrender and the creation of Bangladesh. India captured approximately 93,000 Pakistani prisoners of war and gained control of about 15,000 square kilometers of Pakistani territory, which was later returned under the Simla Agreement of 1972.

Siachen Conflict (1984)
On April 13, 1984, India launched Operation Meghdoot to secure control of the Siachen Glacier in the disputed Kashmir region. This operation was notable for being the first military assault conducted in the world's highest battlefield. The operation resulted in India gaining control of the entire Siachen Glacier, which it continues to hold.

Kargil War (1999)
In February 1999, Pakistani troops infiltrated across the Line of Control and covertly occupied strategic heights in the Kargil district of Indian-administered Kashmir. India detected this infiltration in early May and launched Operation Vijay to reclaim the occupied areas. The Indian Air Force provided crucial support through Operation Safed Sagar.

International pressure, particularly from the United States, led to Pakistan agreeing to withdraw its troops by July 11, 1999. The war officially ended on July 26, 1999, with India successfully recapturing all territory.

Operation Parakram (2001-2002)
Following a terrorist attack on the Indian Parliament on December 13, 2001, India initiated a massive military mobilization along the India-Pakistan border called Operation Parakram. This standoff involved 500,000-800,000 Indian troops and 300,000-400,000 Pakistani troops positioned along the border and the Line of Control.

Though no full-scale war erupted, the standoff resulted in nearly 800 Indian casualties and displaced over 155,000 Indians and 44,000 Pakistanis. The crisis eventually de-escalated through international diplomatic intervention.

2016 Surgical Strikes
On September 29, 2016, India claimed to have conducted "surgical strikes" against militant launch pads across the Line of Control in Pakistani-administered Kashmir. These strikes were in response to a terrorist attack on an Indian Army base in Uri on September 18, 2016, which killed 19 soldiers.

India's operations reportedly targeted and destroyed terror launch pads without causing Indian casualties. Pakistan, however, denied that such strikes occurred as described by India, claiming that only border skirmishes took place.

2019 Balakot Airstrike
Following a suicide attack that killed 40 Indian paramilitary personnel in Pulwama on February 14, 2019, India conducted airstrikes on February 26, 2019, targeting an alleged terrorist training camp in Balakot, Pakistan. India claimed to have killed "a large number" of militants, though satellite imagery analysis suggested minimal damage to the targeted facilities.

The day after the airstrikes, Pakistan shot down an Indian warplane and captured its pilot, Abhinandan Varthaman, who was later returned to India. This incident marked the first time since 1971 that warplanes of either country had crossed the Line of Control.

Implications of the Current Conflict
The May 2025 missile strikes represent a significant escalation in the long-standing India-Pakistan conflict. This is the first major missile-based attack since the 2019 Balakot airstrikes and shows India's willingness to respond militarily to what it perceives as Pakistan-supported terrorism.

The international community, including the United States, has called for restraint, concerned that military conflict over Kashmir could rapidly escalate given both countries' nuclear capabilities. The situation remains tense, with Pakistan threatening retaliation at "a time and location of our choosing".

Conclusion
The military history between India and Pakistan demonstrates a pattern of escalation, often triggered by incidents in Kashmir or alleged cross-border terrorism. The latest missile strikes follow this pattern but represent a potentially dangerous new phase in the conflict. As both nations possess nuclear weapons, the international community watches with concern as tensions continue to rise.

The Kashmir dispute remains at the heart of most conflicts between the two nations, and without addressing this fundamental issue, military confrontations may continue to occur. The current situation shows how quickly tensions can escalate from a terrorist attack to missile strikes between nuclear powers, highlighting the fragile nature of peace in the region.

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